IGNOU MEG 16 BLOCK-5 Folk Poetry Notes
MEG 16 BLOCK-5 Folk Poetry
http://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/48593/1/MEG-16B5E.pdf
Oral poetry, as is obvious from the nomenclature, is passed from generation to generation vocally and is rich in meanings, allusions, references, images, symbols and metaphors.
UNIT 18 Oral Epics in India by Stuart H. Blackburn
The term “oral literature” is an oxymoron because “literature” implies the usage of script. Even if we assume that the term poses no internal ambiguity, it refers to a distinct conceptual field of literature that is spread by word of mouth without recourse to writing, both the shorter forms (tongue twisters, war-cries, hutches etc.) and the longer forms (legends, songs, stories, epics, etc). Therefore the definition of “oral literature” would exclude those which do not have any narrative structure (examples would be proverbs and war cries) and include the written extensions of various oral texts. Thus, the term “oral literature” would refer to a work of literature with narrative structure which has spread by oral-aural medium and mainly its textualized extension.
INDIAN EPICS AS A GENRE
Indian oral epics – narrative, nature, poetic, and heroic. He observes that “folk (or oral) epic songs are narrative poems in formulaic and ornamental style dealing with the adventures of extraordinary people”.
The second generic feature of the oral epic is its poetic nature. . However from our text we come to know that there is a shift from poetry to song in many of the Indian oral epics.
Another feature which characterizes Indian oral epics is nonconformity of poetic meters with rhythmic structures in music. Epic performances are dominated by the song although there are prose and non-sung sections too (vacanam, varta, arthav), which are simultaneously used to elaborate the sung material.
'Song '' is integral to Indian epics (Chattisgarhi git, Tamil pattu, and Tulu paddana). Propp reiterates this fact by saying that “musical, vocal performance is so essential to it … that works not meant to be sung do not qualify as epic”.
The third generic feature of the epic is its heroic nature. One thing we should remember in the context of oral epics is that heroic is seen to be martial and is quite different from magical, human, or celestial.
Epics and Community
Oral epics occur in local and regional contexts all over the Indian subcontinent, engaging a wide range of audiences, singers, and ritual specialists. They represent some of the most striking and complex expressions of narrative culture found within Hindu traditions. Usually closely tied to the geography and history of a particular region, their plots invariably play out in a landscape that is recognizable to audiences. Their main characters and themes are intimately connected to the caste identities of singers and audiences of a particular group, of a new setting, or its locale
Oral Epics and The Mahabharata and The Ramayana
By definition, oral epics are distinct from the Mahabharata and Ramayana, which were written and composed in Sanskrit; however, oral epics sometimes interact with Sanskrit in intricate and reflexive ways, extending or reworking themes and even characters from the Sanskrit epics. For example, the plot of an oral epic may deal with some kind of relationship with characters from the Mahabharata or Ramayana, who may themselves then appear as incarnations or avataras in the oral epics.
Epics in Performance
Performance of the oral epics necessarily involves interaction with its audience. In contrast to Sanskrit epics, the performer of an oral epic is there with his own social group, so he modifies the work, sometimes omitting some details from the original version and at other times adds an extra explanation, in consideration of the level of the social group and the time, place, and occasion the work is orated. Because of this, oral epics are highly variable; it could be altered in detail or in content according to its new setting.
Performers are exclusively male. Only in the Rajasthani par tradition a husband and wife form as a team and perform together. There are virtually no instances where a woman performs alone or women perform as a team. Performers are usually from the lower sections of society, mostly the untouchables. The middle cast landowners are the patrons. On the other hand the upper echelons of the society, the Brahmins dominate the classical performance of the Sanskrit epics.
Song-recitation and dance-drama are two broad groups which characterize the performances of Indian oral epics. A small group of men accompanied by some musical instruments (sometimes with a painted scroll, shadow puppet theatre etc.) perform the song-recitation, and dance-drama exists where song-recitation exists. In a way dance-drama is a secondary form.
Epics: Oral and Written
Some of the oral epics in India have no written text at all. They are transmitted orally and pass on from one generation of folk performers to the other. The Sanskrit epics exist at the national and international levels and are transmitted as books.
For non literate performers the text becomes a symbol of authenticity for them. Some other performers seem to memorize and repeat parts of the text in their performances. That’s why oral performance is not necessarily an exact duplication of the text. Hence It is through the oral performances that the epic hero becomes a real hero.
certain episodes become more popular among a particular social group, they are more often repeated, whereas certain episodes remain unpopular and are rarely heard and remain unknown to the oral performers also. Rarely is the entire text repeated in a performance. The full story remains confined to the text.
A list of Oral Epics in India by performance context
Alha:
It is a regional or supra-regional epic sung throughout north India. It is an entirely male performance genre, the performers are male and it is performed before male-audiences in the “heartland of north India”. The subject-matter is that of the Sanskrit epics The Ramayana and The Mahabharata.
The epic consists of a series of battles (larai) between the Rajputs, the dwellers of Mahoba and their enemies. At the end the Chandels are annihilated. There are fifty-two larais in this epic-cycle.
Annanmar:
The Annamar story takes place in the fifteenth-century in Tamil Nadu (Kongu area). It is a martial folk epic. It has both oral versions as well as texts. There are no fixed texts or fixed number of episodes. It has many versions which point out the fact that Annanmar has one story. Sometimes they come to feel themselves possessed and attain a trance-like state.
At the end the warriors fall to the ground and attain a death-like stupor. Their bodies are then covered with white clothes to symbolize their death. The lead singer then comes to the foreground and chants magical verses, the same verses that the sister is said to have sung over her dead brothers. The magic works, the performers are revived. The sister, along with her brothers, ascends a small chariot and moves towards heaven.
Bow Song (Muttupattan):
This dates back to a seventeenth-century Tamil poem. It is not a single epic tradition but comprises hundreds of shorter narratives. Depending on the ritual importance of bow songs it can be largely divided into two broad groups. The first group comprises “birth stories”; the second group comprises “death stories” which are usually historical accounts or biographies sung in praise of the local heroes.
Candaini (Lorik-Canda):
This epic tale of Candaini , the daughter of Raja Mahar from Gaura Garh and Lorik is performed from north India to Chattisgarh. There are two primary styles in Chhattisgarh: git (song-recitation) and naca (dance-drama). The original performers of the git used to sing without any musical instrument and were members of the Raut.
Devnarayan:
Devnarayan or Devji is an incarnation of Lord Vishnu. The oral epic of Devnarayan is a two-part story about the twenty-four Bagaravat brothers of the Gujar community. . It is usually performed at the shrines in all-night wake ceremonies called jagaran. The professional singers from the lower-ranked Nayak caste celebrate the birth and heroic deeds of the hero deity Devnarayan.
Dhola:
It is a romantic epic found in the western deserts of Rajasthan and in the plains of western Uttar Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. The popular epic spreads over three generations and tells the story of Raja Pratham, the king of Nawagarh , his son Nal, and of Dhola and Maru, the daughter of Raja Budh. Dhola is performed by professional and non-professional singers from low and middle-caste groups. A trained singer sings the song accompanied by a cikara, a two-string, bowed instrument. There is also a drummer playing the dholak and a cimta (steel tongs). Dhola when performed by a solo performer requires no props or costume.
Guga:
Guga the Rajput prince has control over snakes and is venerated most during the rainy season. This cult formed around this Rajput prince is found throughout Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, and also in districts of northwestern Uttar Pradesh. The story of Guga is commonly told by Bhagats (ritual specialists of the Jogi caste). Accompanied by a drum and sarangi, these singers mix the stories of Guga’s life with the devotional songs.
Kordabbu:
This is a martial epic found in the coastal regions of Karnataka. The oral tradition of the Tulu speakers is known as paddana (pad-to sing, paddanas “must be sung”). It is ancient Dravidian oral poetry, and paddana is an integral part of the Tulu languages. The stories themselves number into hundreds and vary in length from one another. One lead singer, usually an experienced older woman, is the lead singer, and others join the chorus.
Pabuji:
Pabuji is the son of Rajput Dhal Rathor and a nymph (pari). The epic Pabuji is performed in Rajasthan. Husband and wife perform it. They carry with them a fifteen-foot-long cloth painting or par, which contains the exploits of the life of Pabuji.
Palnadu:
Palnadu is the story of Alugu Raju, a north Indian monarch. The epic of Palnadu is common throughout the Telugu-speaking province of Andhra Pradesh and is performed in the yearly festival of the heroes in Karempudi. The story of Palnadu is sung by the main singer who is often from the untouchable Mala caste. During the epic performance he carries a sword and a shield of brass; he is accompanied by three relatives or members of the same caste who play a goatskin bag-pipe, finger-cymbals and a set of double-ended brass drums.
Tolubommalata:
This is a regional retelling of the Sanskrit epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata. An example of the leather puppet theatre of Andhra Pradesh and eastern Karnataka, it is performed by a group of clown puppets, the content comprises the folk traditions.
UNIT 19 The Awakened Wind: The Oral Poetry of the Indian Tribes by Sitakant Mahapatra
Sitakant Mahapatra, the eminent poet from Odisha, has, over the years, collected a vast array of oral poems from various tribal communities. - “Most tribal languages are unwritten; conventional from the point of view of us aged but fresh and inventive. They are also highly musical. They contain a large number of symbols. It is necessary to retain in translation as much as possible of the symbolism as it is the essence of poetry. It is also necessary to preserve, as far as possible, the line – structure of the original.”
Oral songs can be classified into four categories:
life cycle songs,
ritual songs,
festival songs and
cosmological songs.
THE TEXT
The Kondhs:
Their Oral Poetry “Dharmu Above, Dhartani Below” The Kondhs are the largest tribal community in Odisha, inhabiting the districts of Phulbani, Koraput and Kalahandi.
Meriah or sacrifice offered to gods and goddesses is considered auspicious and the Kondhs try to appease God by sacrificing in order to live in peace and prosperity.
Songs of Death
The Kondhs are proud of their ancestors and are immensely grateful to them. On the 8th, 9th or 10th day after a death, ceremonial rituals are performed to appease the spirit of the departed one, to let them know that they are no longer living on this earth.
Songs of Love
They are conversational, argumentative, symbolical, metaphorical and heartwarming. The songs contain messages about how to strengthen family and social life, and talk of the values of oath, promises and the need for strong determination.
The Kondh youth live in the dormitory, which is made specifically for them. Together they sing and dance, play on the flutes. The dhangda (male) and the dhangdi (female) have the right to choose their own life partner and in this dormitory, the perfect ambience is provided to them.
Marriage Songs
Kondh marriage songs are often quizzical and lovingly argumentative. In it, one can easily discern nudism, naturism and eroticism. The unmarried dhangdas of the village carry tubers and yams on their shoulders. They follow the bride and her friends in a procession, singing all the way. The dhangdis too join in to make this a colorful, riotous and wistful song. The poet observes that there is seriousness in the marriage songs as well. There are oaths and a swear-in-ceremony before marriage.
The whole marriage ceremony RFB
The Santals
The Santals are one of the major tribes of India, with a population of a little more than four million according to the 1971 census. The Dhanbad, Hazaribag and Singhbhum districts of Bihar, Birbhum, Purulia, Bankura and Midnapore districts of West Bengal, and Mayurbhanj district of Odisha are richly populated with the Santals.
The Santals are also known as the Kolean. They believe that their earliest name was not Santals but Kherwar. The sal tree is also a common symbol for a girl. The idea of feminine beauty is symbolized by the tall and slim sal tree. A Santal village is generally neat and clean, with a road running between two rows of houses. The Santal house is a model of strength, elegance and beauty. Its mud walls are beautifully plastered with cow-dung and are smooth and polished. They are painted with floral designs and geometrical patterns using four primary colours: white, black, red and yellow. The Santals have a language of their own, but, because of their physical distribution, they write in different scripts – Oriya, Bengali, and Devnagri.
Bakhens: The Ritual Invocation Songs of the Santals
Invocation songs can be broadly categorized into two groups.
The first (nos. 1-10) group relates to different stages in the agricultural cycle and the rituals relevant to each such agricultural or allied activity, Magh Bonga is one of their more important festivals. Similarly, the three invocations during the Sohrae festival are rare and unique.
The second group of invocatory songs (nos. 11-16) relates to the festivals of birth, marriage and death. Magh Bonga and Baha Bonga are always celebrated at the place for communal worship, the Jaher era. The Jaher era symbolizes the remnants of the original village forest.
Among the Santals, as among many other primitive groups, the period between death and final burial and the performance of the last ritual functions in connection with that death may be an extended one. Thus bhandan is a communal second funeral held once a year for all who have died since the last bhandan was held. The dead person is believed to leave the world of the living only after the second funeral has been completed.
Binti: The Song of Creation Myth
Binti is the Santal song of cosmology and is recited by a group of three or more singers at the time of the marriage ceremony, after the members of the bridegroom’s party arrive at the bride’s house. The song is in question and answer form.
Pg 30/54 stories of human creation. RFB (Read From Book)
Other Santhali Songs
The Santali riddles songs, the Kudum, are presented in two categories –
those which paint a still, symbolize an object and work out a static or frozen gesture,To the first category belong the picture of fruits and vegetables, fishes, frog and tortoise and
secondly, those which symbolize an activity, the dynamics of a movement, a fluent gesture. In the second category we find images of dried fruits bursting and scattering the seeds.
Besides love and marriage songs, there are miscellaneous Santali poems which sing of their history, creation and migration.
The Mundas
The Mundas mainly live in the northern districts of Odisha, particularly the district of Sundargarh, which adjoins the Chotanagpur Division of Bihar. Their language is Mundari. It does not have a script of its own. The Mundas live in close physical proximity to the Oraons and the Santals.
The important festivals in Munda society are given below:
1) Mage: festival of ancestor worship and thanks giving for good harvest.
2) Phagu: festival of worship of bongas or deities presiding over hills, jungles, fields and streams at the beginning of the shikar or annual hunt.
3) Sarhul or Baha: spring festival.
4) Honbaha: festival for the worship of household gods by the head of each family.
5) Batauli or Kadleta: sacrificial feast for transplantation of paddy seedlings.
6) Karam: another festival for ripening crops and worship of gods.
7) Dasa: a festival of the Mundas is borrowed from the Hindus, which corresponds to Dussera, and meant for only singing and dancing but no worship.
8) Kolom Sing Bonga: a festival for harvesting of transplanted paddy.
9) Jom Nowa: festival for eating the newly harvested rice or flattened rice, chura.
10) Ind: festival celebrated in memory of Munda ancestor, the first Magabansi chief
11) Sohrae: festival for worship of cattle.
12) Soso-Bonga: festival to appease and drive away ghosts with the ghost-finder or mati officiating as priest.
The most important festivals are Karam and Sarhul.
Jadur are the most important and perhaps the most ancient of the Mundari songs. Jadur songs are sung both by boys and girls dancing separately and in two intermixed parties. Jatra is a non-specific song which can be sung during any festival or any occasion of merriment. The Adandi songs are meant for the occasion of marriage.
The Parajas
The Parajas (also pronounced Porajas) are found mostly in the Koraput district and, to an extent, in the Kalahandi district of Odisha. ‘Paraja’ does not connote a well defined exclusive tribal group. There are minor variations among different groups from the point of view of their totems, language-use, marriage customs and other ritual ceremonies. For example, the Pengo Parajas have the tiger and cobra as their totems whereas the Jhodias have the vulture, the tiger and the cobra as totems
The Hos
The Hos are found mostly in the district of Mayurbhanj in Odisha and also popularly referred to as Kols. As a matter of fact, people variously call them as Kols, Kolhas and the Kolah-Kol-Loharas, because they all belong to the Ho tribe.
The Hos are like the Hindus to a large extent have adopted a number of Hindu festivals. Most of their festivals are linked to the stages in agricultural operations – Akshaya Tritiya, Salui Puja, Makar Sankaranti, Sohrae or Bandana, Gamha Purnima, Raja Sankranti and Karam are some of their more important festivals.
Bride price amounting to several heads of cattle or equivalent cash makes marriage a difficult proposition for poor bride grooms and their parents.
The Oraons
The Oraons live mostly in the district of Sundargarh in Odisha. This district adjoins the Oraon belt of the Chotanagpur division of Bihar. They thus live in close vicinity of the Mundas, the other major tribal group in this north Odisha district. They prefer to call themselves Kurukhs. The most important institution of Oraon social life is the youth dormitory called the dhumkuria. The dhumkuria for the unmarried boys is known as the jonkh-erpa and that for the unmarried girls as the pel-erpa.
The Oraon poems are organized in six different groups on the basis of the occasions of marriage and cultivation. Besides, they sing of animals too.
The Koyas
The Koyas are a Dravidian-speaking tribe living in South Odisha, mostly in the Southern part of the Malkangiri sub-division of Koraput District. Malkangiri is now a district in itself.
The Koyas chiefly depend on agriculture. Their agricultural practices are still at a primitive level. Monogamy is the rule. When sons reach a marriageable age, they build their own homes adjacent to the ancestral home. Koya houses are generally small and are not noted for cleanliness, orderliness or feeling for beauty. Bride prices are heavy among the Koyas. When a boy carries away a girl with the help of his friends while she is in the forest or the fields, the marriage is known as karsu pendul or forcible marriage.
The Koya song-structures reveal superb aestheticism. The lyrics are charmingly alliterative. According to the poet, the lines have harmoniously blending metaphors and onomatopoeic words which produce an exquisite melody and strong visual flavor. Singing generally takes place in groups, only one in each group is the leading voice. Dancing and singing never go together. As dancing is always accompanied by the beating of drums, singing either precedes the drumbeats or is done when the beating of the drums is muffled and nearly silent.
UNIT 20 Ramayana in Modern South India Ed. Paula Richman
Literature, in written form, helps in preserving the folklores and oral traditions. But for the literature in this form, the world would have lost almost all the folk and oral traditions. Written books, as recordings of folklores help in passing on the lofty thoughts and ideas to posterity with no or very little changes in contrast to oral traditions where they often get lost in transition. Literature also can highlight the relevance of the stories of the past to the generation of the present, something which the oral traditions cannot strongly do.
‘DO YOU ACCEPT MY TRUTH MY LORD SITA’S POWERS’ — BY LEELA PRASAD
RFB the Poem on the Chastity of Sita and its explanation & About the poet
LAKSHMANA’S LAUGH (WOMEN’S OLD SONG) TRANSLATED BY V. N. RAO FROM TELEGU
Download and attach in the blog link in the book pg-48
About the post, Poetry explained
ORALITY OF THE RAMAYANA SONGS
Brahmin women who sing these songs are generally aged between thirty-five and seventy. They come from traditional families, literate but not formally educated. Their audience consists of women from similar background, usually relatives and neighbors. There are also children, unmarried young women, and newly married brides visiting their mothers’ house for a festive occasion.
Deshi and Margi Traditions
The words Deshi and Margi evolved from Sanskrit, the first one stands for country and the second one stands for direction. Ramayana songs deal with the “deshi” culture and traditions but it is successful in providing direction to everyone, it is not just a book or a text rather it is a way of life.
Ramayana and Indian Tradition and Culture
Importance of Ramayana
• Ramayana deals with the various aspects of man’s life – love, duty to superiors, treachery, devotion to parents, selflessness and what not.
• These characters of Ramayana stand as symbols of love, charity, patriotism, conjugal love, and obedience to parents, self-sacrifice and the like.
• The characters of Sita and Urmila stand for ideal womanhood.
• The character of Ravana teaches us how a man can ruin himself for his own follies and unholy ambitions.
• Dussehra is a great Hindu festival and is celebrated all over India. The festival relates to Rama’s victory over Ravana.
• The Ram Navami is a great festival celebrated over a large part of North India.
VARIOUS VERSIONS OF RAMAYANA IN INDIA
Ramayana in Dasaratha Jataka: The earliest literary of the Rama story of its component is recorded in the B.Pali Verses (Gathas) of Dasaratha Jataka
Oldest Ramayana : Ramayana Kamban : In Dravidian language, the oldest Ramayana is that of Kambau known as Tamil Ramayana, written in somewhat 9th century AD.
Lok Ramayana in other Indian States: Odia, Bengali, Tibit, Himachali Ramayana, As middle belt of Himachal is greatly influenced by Mahabharta, so somewhere in their Ramayana Pandavas are also fighting against Ravana. In some folk stories, there is a mention of Muslim and Pathans invasions to their areas.
GENDER IN THE RAMAYANA SONGS
As a structure, each song resembles the construction of the Brahmin house. In the front, it is the men who dominate. All the conventional male dominated values of the house reign strong at the main entrance of the house. But the interior of the house, especially the back part of it, is women’s domain. They are relatively free in that area, free from the censuring gaze of their men. They control their own lives in that area, and men are ridiculed even for entering that area. The song structure precisely replicates this design.
The language of the songs is very gentle, properly feminine. There are no harsh words, no strong diction. Everything is very refined and appropriate to the occasion.
The final picture that emerges is not one of the ideal Ramayana with an ideal husband, an ideal wife and ideal brothers, but one of a complex joint family where every one suspects the other, lies to the other and lives a constant life of tension and fear, coupled with love and affection. In a way, the Ramayana songs are also a statement against the public Ramayanas, the bhakti Ramayanas, where the accepted values of a male dominated world are glorified. Here, in these texts, the minor and lower characters come out as winners. Urmila, Lakshman, the twin sons, Santa and even Surpanakha, have a chance to take their revenge. Sita alone does not fight her own battle. Others fight it for her. She even enjoys the freedom she acquired by the news of her death. For once, she could live life without existing for Rama. As Rama prepares for her death ceremonies, burdened by the guilt of having her killed unjustly, Sita quietly gives birth to sons and waits for her final victory over Rama, won through her agents, her sons.
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